The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States. The party's main counterpart is the Republican Party. The modern Democratic Party is considered the older of the nation's two major political parties. The party's principal governing organization is the Democratic National Committee (DNC), which is responsible for overseeing the process of writing and promoting the party platform every four years and providing national leadership surrounding the campaign, fundraising, political activity, and election strategy.[Source]
The party generally supports a left-leaning, liberal platform on the American political spectrum with an emphasis on the role of the federal government in promoting social and economic welfare.[Source][Source][Source]
Party members typically but do not always or uniformly favor the following policy positions. All positions are taken from the Democratic Party's 2016 platform:[Source]
Transcribed from Ballotpedia. Click for additional information about the Democratic Party
The Republican Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States. It is often referred to as the Grand Old Party or the GOP. The party's main counterpart is the Democratic Party. The Grand Old Party nickname, previously used by Southern Democrats, was applied to the Republican Party following the 1888 election cycle. At the time, Republicans had regained control of the presidency and Congress for the first time since the Grant administration. The Chicago Tribune proclaimed, "Let us be thankful that under the rule of the Grand Old Party ... these United States will resume the onward and upward march which the election of Grover Cleveland in 1884 partially arrested."[source]
The party's principal governing organization is the Republican National Committee (RNC), which is responsible for developing and promoting the Republican political platform, as well as coordinating fundraising and election strategy. It is also responsible for organizing and running the Republican National Convention every four years.
The modern GOP supports a conservative platform on the American political spectrum, with foundations in laissez-faire capitalism, low taxes, supply-side fiscal policies and social conservatism.[source][source][source][source][source]
Party members typically do not consistently or uniformly favor the following policy positions. All positions are taken from the Republican Party's 2016 platform:[source]
Transcribed from Ballotpedia. Click for more information about the Republican Party
The Constitution Party is a political party. As of September 2019, it was a ballot-qualified party in 14 states. The Constitution Party is the fifth-largest political party in the United States. According to its website, the party supports "the principles of the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution of the United States, and the Bill of Rights. Our goal is to limit the federal government to its delegated, enumerated, Constitutional functions."[source][source]
The Constitution Party was established as the U.S. Taxpayers' Party in 1992. The founders organized the party in response to a perceived shift away from "limited and empowered local government, and very broad and significant individual freedoms." The Federal Election Commission officially recognized the party in 1996. Delegates to the party's 1999 national convention changed the party's name to the Constitution Party.[source]
Platform
The Constitution Party platform is a written document that outlines the party's policy priorities and positions on domestic and foreign affairs. The platform also describes the party's core concepts and beliefs.[source]
Click here to view the full text of the 2020 Constitution Party platform.
Transcribed from Ballotpedi'as entry on the Constitution Party. Click for more information
The Democratic Socialists of America (DSA) is the largest socialist organization in the United States, claiming 46,000 members as of July 2018.[source] The DSA "fights for reforms today that will weaken the power of corporations and increase the power of working people."[source] The DSA was founded in 1982 by the unification of the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee (DSOC), founded in 1973 by Michael Harrington, and the New American Movement, founded in 1971.[source]
The DSOC was formed after Harrington resigned as National Co-Chairman of the Socialist Party of America (SPA)[6] Harrington advocated for immediate withdrawal from the Vietnam War, while the majority of the party, who became the Social Democrats USA (SDUSA), advocated U.S. presence as support for anti-communists and labor organizations in the country.[source] Harrington also criticized the SDUSA for what he called "obsessive anti-communism" and supported diplomatically dealing with the Soviet Union.[source]
The DSA made a "decision in late 2014 to make its number one priority the movement to support Bernie Sanders running for president" in the 2016 election, according to the DSA website and saw its membership increase from 6,500 to 8,500 by election day. In the eight months following the election, an additional 13,000 people joined the organization.[source]
Transcribed from Ballotpedia's entry on the Democraticy Socialist Party. Click for more information.
The Green Party of the United States (Green Party) is a political party in the United States. According to its website, the Green Party is "an independent political party connected to American social movements, and is part of a global Green movement that shares key values, including our Four Pillars: Peace and Non-Violence, Ecological Wisdom, Grassroots Democracy, and Social Justice."[1]
The Green Party platform is a written document that outlines the party's policy priorities and positions on domestic and foreign affairs. The platform also describes the party's core concepts and beliefs.[2]
Click here to view the full text of the 2020 Green Party platform.
The Libertarian Party is the third-largest political party in the United States after the Democratic and Republican parties. According to the Libertarian Party's website, "Libertarians strongly oppose any government interference into their personal, family, and business decisions."[source]
The Libertarian Party platform is a written document that outlines the party's policy priorities and positions on domestic and foreign affairs. The platform also describes the party's core concepts and beliefs.[source]
Click here to view the full text of the 2020 Libertarian Party platform.
Books and eBooks available through GALILEO and/or in the CSU main campus library. If available in print form, call numbers to locate books will be listed in the entry. Books are only available to CSU faculty, staff, and students.
The American Political Party System by
From party polarization, elections, and internal party politics, to the evolution of the U.S. presidency, John S. Jackson's new book has something for everyone interested in American politics. Beginning with a discussion of the creation of the U.S. government to the formation of today's political powerhouses, Jackson provides a narrative sweep of American party history like none other. Unique to this book is a detailed breakdown of the evolution of political parties from 1832 to the current era. Jackson explains how the reform era came to be, as well as how it produced the polarized party era we have today. In doing so, he guides the reader to an appreciation of where U.S. party politics originated and the aspirations of those who helped create the current system. Jackson also examines the internal mechanisms and personalities of the Democratic and Republican parties. He compares multiple presidential elections, thus telling a broader story of the unfolding of today's party polarization and gridlock.
How America’s Political Parties Change (and How They Don’t) by
The election of 2016 prompted journalists and political scientists to write obituaries for the Republican Party—or prophecies of a new dominance. But it was all rather familiar. Whenever one of our two great parties has a setback, we've heard: “This is the end of the Democratic Party,” or, “The Republican Party is going out of existence.” Yet both survive, and thrive. We have the oldest and third oldest political parties in the world—the Democratic Party founded in 1832 to reelect Andrew Jackson, the Republican Party founded in 1854 to oppose slavery in the territories. They are older than almost every American business, most American colleges, and many American churches. Both have seemed to face extinction in the past, and have rebounded to be competitive again. How have they managed it? Michael Barone, longtime co-author of The Almanac of American Politics, brings a deep understanding of our electoral history to the question and finds a compelling answer. He illuminates how both parties have adapted, swiftly or haltingly, to shifting opinion and emerging issues, to economic change and cultural currents, to demographic flux. At the same time, each has maintained a constant character. The Republican Party appeals to “typical Americans” as understood at a given time, and the Democratic Party represents a coalition of “out-groups.”
Populism in the Digital Age by
The development of social media platforms has allowed a new wave of populism to accelerate rapidly. Tweets, Facebook shares, and viral memes get information to ordinary citizens quickly and directly, without the influence of authorities, and often without the benefit of research and facts. Is this democracy in its purest form or mindless transmission of fake news and irresponsible reporting? What is the result of digital populism, and what can be done to use it for the good of the people? This resource contains viewpoints that will awaken readers to the value of critical thinking skills.
The Two-Party System That Nobody Asked For by
Bob Mills analyzes the Democratic Party and the Republican Party over the course of time. He finds both of them seriously flawed and raises deep questions about the two-party system overall.
This book is also available in print and is located on the third floor of Schwob Memorial Library. The call number is: JK2261 .M56 2019
Moderates: The Vital Center of American Politics, From the Founding to Today by
The fierce polarization of contemporary politics has encouraged Americans to read back into their nation's past a perpetual ideological struggle between liberals and conservatives. However, in this timely book, David S. Brown advances an original interpretation that stresses the critical role of moderate statesmen, ideas, and alliances in making our political system work. Beginning with John Adams and including such key figures as Abraham Lincoln, Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., and Bill Clinton, Brown charts the vital if uneven progress of centrism through the centuries. Moderate opposition to both New England and southern secessionists during the early republic and later resistance to industrial oligarchy and the modern Sunbelt right are part of this persuasion's far-reaching legacy. Time and again moderates, operating under a broad canopy of coalitions, have come together to reshape the nation's electoral landscape. Today's bitter partisanship encourages us to deny that such a moderate tradition is part of our historical development--one dating back to the Constitutional Convention. Brown offers a less polemical and far more compelling assessment of our politics.
The Digital Party: Political Organisation and Online Democracy by
From the Pirate Parties in Northern Europe to Podemos in Spain and the 5-Star Movement in Italy, from the movements behind Bernie Sanders in the United States and Jeremy Corbyn in the United Kingdom, to Jean-Luc Melenchon's presidential bid in France, the last decade has witnessed the rise of a new blueprint for political organization: the digital party. These new political formations tap into the potential of social media to gain consensus, and use online participatory platforms to include the rank-and-file. Paolo Gerbaudo looks at the restructuring of political parties and campaigns in the time of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and big data. Drawing on interviews with key political leaders and digital organizers, he argues that the digital party is very different from the class-based "mass party" of the industrial era, and offers promising new solutions to social polarization and the failures of liberal democracy today.
Positioning and Stance in Political Discourse by
Within the political sphere, a political actor is often judged by what he or she says, with their verbal performance often perceived as representative of the individual. Hearers accept that, as individuals, they possess a lifetime of experiences and actions which inform, but may also undermine, their aspirations in gaining political capital. Additionally, as representatives of a political party and its ideology, these actors do not exist in isolation; they are members and, at times, potential candidates of a particular party with its own agenda which may, in turn, cause them to modify their personal speech to align with espoused policies of the party. The various contributions contained in this volume examine the discourse of political actors through the lenses of positionality and stance. Throughout its chapters, clearly defined theoretical perspectives and specified social practices are employed, enabling the authors to elucidate how political actors can situate themselves, their party, and their opponents toward their ostensive public. This book successfully demonstrates how espoused perspectives relate to, or reflect on, the nature of the individual political actor and their truth, the party they represent and its ideology, and the pandering to popular public opinion to gain support and co-operation. This book will hold particular appeal for postgraduate students, researchers, and scholars of discourse studies, pragmatics, political science, as well as other areas in humanities and the social sciences.
The following sites are government and non-partisan and non-profit organizations that monitor and record legislator voting and campaign contributions.
GovTrack.us, is a tool created by Civic Impulse, LLC. The site helps ordinary citizens find and track bills in the U.S. Congress and understand their representatives’ legislative records, includes a fair amount of historical data, back to 1789, on legislation, legislators, and vote counts.
See the notes on Information Coverage and Timeliness on the sites About page.
Campaign contributions at the federal and state levels by candidate and donor. Also includes information about PACs, lobbyists, and Congressional committees.
From the Sunlight Foundation, this site offers current information on Bills, Senators, Representatives, Votes, Issues, Committees, and The Money Trail.
MapLight combines three data sets:
Contributions: Campaign contributions given to each member of Congress. (Source: Center for Responsive Politics)
Votes: How each member of Congress voted on every bill. (Source: GovTrack.us)
Support/opposition: Which interest groups and companies support and oppose vital bills. (Source: MapLight research team)
National Institute on Money in State Politics, followthemoney.org
The President on Capitol Hill: A Theory of Institutional Influence by
Jeffrey E. Cohen demonstrates that existing research has underestimated the president's power to sway Congress. The President on Capitol Hill offers a compelling perspective on presidential-congressional relations and develops a new theory of presidential influence.
Contractual Politics and the Institutionalization of Bureaucratic Influence by 
Lobbying Regulation by
This book provides a retrospective and prospective analysis of the Lobbying Disclosure Act (LDA) on its 20th anniversary. It begins with a historical summary of citizens right to petition, the connection between the right to petition and lobbying, and the regulation of contact between citizens and government in the United States. The book then examines contemporary issues that might affect lobbying and citizens right to petition government; and provides analysis of potential options for congressional action should Congress consider amending provisions of the LDA. Moreover, the book provides a brief history and description of the provisions of federal law restricting employment opportunities and activities of federal employees after they leave the service of the executive or legislative branches of the federal government.
The Political Elite and Special Interests by
There is a growing sense that government is no longer of the people, by the people, and for the people. Many believe that society is manipulated by a handful of political elites and special interests, but why does each party feel that it is the elites and special interests of the other party who are in control of things? Does one person one vote still hold sway? Is this still a citizen democracy, or has it evolved into an oligarchy? Whose voice and vote really count? These and other questions and debates concerning power, influence, and who wields it are at the center of this fascinating collection of articles drawn from across the political spectrum.
When the Senate Worked for Us: The Invisible Role of Staffers in Countering Corporate Lobbies by
Every politically sentient American knows that Congress has been dominated by special interests, and many people do not remember a time when Congress legislated in the public interest. In the 1960s and '70s, however, lobbyists were aggressive but were countered by progressive senators and representatives, as several books have documented. What has remained untold is the major behind-the-scenes contribution of entrepreneurial Congressional staff, who planted the seeds of public interest bills in their bosses' minds and maneuvered to counteract the influence of lobbyists to pass laws in consumer protection, public health, and other policy arenas crying out for effective government regulation. They infuriated Nixon's advisor, John Ehrlichman, who called them "bumblebees," a name they wore as a badge of honor. For his insider account, Pertschuk draws on many interviews, as well as his fifteen years serving on the staff of the Senate Commerce Committee that Senator Warren Magnuson chaired and as the committee's Democratic Staff Director.
Congress and Diaspora Politics: The Influence of Ethnic and Foreign Lobbying by
Congress and Diaspora Politics examines the impact of lobbying efforts by domestic ethnic groups and foreign governments on US policymaking. Over time, the number and variety of ethnic groups have grown, and foreign governments have increasingly turned to professional lobbyists rather than relying on their diplomatic corps to cultivate relationships with Congress. The case studies presented here examine this new lobbying environment by focusing on Jewish American, Muslim American, and Cuban American interest groups as well as lobbying efforts by the governments of Turkey, Armenia, Mexico, and others. They explore the strategies, tactics, and resources utilized to impact policymaking. The volume also offers perspectives of those who have worked on both sides of the lobbying equation--"a view from K Street" (the lobbying side) and "a view from the Hill" (the congressional side). Finally, challenges lawmakers face when diaspora interests intersect with national interests are covered.
The Progressive Era: Activists Change America by
Activists are always working hard to change America for the better and to help Americans who need someone to advocate for them. Activists have been a part of this nation's social and political landscape since its earliest days, but the Progressive Era is known as the period when social activism and political reformation movements truly took off and led to real change for many Americans. Readers get a comprehensive look at this period of sweeping change through fact-filled main text, fascinating sidebars, and relevant primary sources.
Race over Party by
In late nineteenth-century Boston, battles over black party loyalty were fights over the place of African Americans in the post-Civil War nation. In his fresh in-depth study of black partisanship and politics, Millington W. Bergeson-Lockwood demonstrates that party politics became the terrain upon which black Bostonians tested the promise of equality in America's democracy. Most African Americans remained loyal Republicans, but Race Over Party highlights the actions and aspirations of a cadre of those who argued that the GOP took black votes for granted and offered little meaningful reward for black support. These activists branded themselves "independents," forging new alliances and advocating support of whichever candidate would support black freedom regardless of party. By the end of the century, however, it became clear that partisan politics offered little hope for the protection of black rights and lives in the face of white supremacy and racial violence. Even so, Bergeson-Lockwood shows how black Bostonians' faith in self-reliance, political autonomy, and dedicated organizing inspired future generations of activists who would carry these legacies into the foundation of the twentieth-century civil rights movement.
The Men and the Moment: The Election of 1968 and the Rise of Partisan Politics in America by
The presidential election of 1968 forever changed American politics. In this character-driven narrative history, Aram Goudsouzian portrays the key transformations that played out over that dramatic year. It was the last "Old Politics" campaign, where political machines and party bosses determined the major nominees, even as the "New Politics" of grassroots participation powered primary elections. It was an election that showed how candidates from both the Left and Right could seize on "hot-button" issues to alter the larger political dynamic. It showcased the power of television to "package" politicians and political ideas, and it played out against an extraordinary dramatic global tableau of chaos and conflict. More than anything else, it was a moment decided by a contest of political personalities, as a group of men battled for the presidency, with momentous implications for the nation's future.
The Red and the Blue:T he 1990s and the birth of political tribalism by
From MSNBC correspondent Steve Kornacki, a lively and sweeping history of the birth of political tribalism in the 1990s--one that brings critical new understanding to our current political landscape from Clinton to Trump
For the People: American Populist Movements from the Revolution to The 1850s by
For the People offers a new interpretation of populist political movements from the Revolution to the eve of the Civil War and roots them in the disconnect between the theory of rule by the people and the reality of rule by elected representatives. Ron Formisano seeks to rescue populist movements from the distortions of contemporary opponents as well as the misunderstandings of later historians. From the Anti-Federalists to the Know-Nothings, Formisano traces the movements chronologically, contextualizing them and demonstrating the progression of ideas and movements.
The Populist Persuasion: An American History by
In The Populist Persuasion, the distinguished historian Michael Kazin guides readers through the expressions of conflict between powerful elites and "the people" that have run through our civic life, filling it with discord and meaning from the birth of the United States until the present day. Kazin argues persuasively that the power of populism lies in its adaptable nature. Across the political spectrum, commentators paste the label on forces and individuals who really have just one big thing in common: they are effective at blasting "elites" or "the establishment" for harming the interests and betraying the ideals of "the people" in nations that are committed, at least officially, to democratic principles.
True Tales from the Campaign Trail: Stories Only Political Consultants Can Tell by
True Tales from the Campaign Trail finds Democratic and Republican political consultants putting aside their differences to offer entertaining and honest insights into the art of the political campaign. First-hand accounts from across the spectrum detail the trials and tribulations of primaries for Ted Kennedy, Oliver North, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton; fraught Senate races fought with direct mail; and down-and-dirty tricks pulled in local elections. The variety of funny foibles and lessons learned makes for an engaging celebration of the democratic process and the campaign trail.
Presidential Debates: Risky Business on the Campaign Trail by
Alan Schroeder's big-picture history recounts the phenomenon of American televised presidential debates and its evolution over the past half century. From pundits to political operatives, from debate moderators to the viewing public, Presidential Debates reveals how the various stakeholders make and experience this powerful event. For this third edition, Schroeder analyzes the presidential debates of 2008 and 2012 and the crucial role that social media and contemporary news outlets had in shaping their design and reception.
Political Consultants and Campaigns by
Political Consultants and Campaigns: One Day to Sell examines the differences between how political science theory suggests campaigns should be run and how political consultants actually run campaigns. In the wake of consultants who effortlessly move from campaigners to policymakers, the dearth of knowledge about the attitudes, beliefs, and strategies of the consultants themselves is still a glaring absence in the analysis of American politics.
National Security Entrepreneurs and the Making of American Foreign Policy by
Since the advent of the contemporary US national security apparatus in 1947, entrepreneurial public officials have tried to reorient the course of the nation's foreign policy. Acting inside the National Security Council system, some principals and high-ranking officials have worked tirelessly to generate policy change and innovation on the issues they care about. These entrepreneurs attempt to set the foreign policy agenda, frame policy problems and solutions, and orient the decision-making process to convince the president and other decision makers to choose the course they advocate. In National Security Entrepreneurs and the Making of American Foreign Policy Vincent Boucher, Charles-Philippe David, and Karine Prémont develop a new concept to study entrepreneurial behaviour among foreign policy advisers and offer the first comprehensive framework of analysis to answer this crucial question: why do some entrepreneurs succeed in guaranteeing the adoption of novel policies while others fail? They explore case studies of attempts to reorient US foreign policy waged by National Security Council entrepreneurs, examining the key factors enabling success and the main forces preventing the adoption of a preferred option: the entrepreneur's profile, presidential leadership, major players involved in the policy formulation and decision-making processes, the national political context, and the presence or absence of significant opportunities. By carefully analyzing significant diplomatic and military decisions of the Johnson, Nixon, Reagan, and Clinton administrations, and offering a preliminary account of contemporary national security entrepreneurship under presidents George W. Bush, Barack Obama, and Donald Trump, this book makes the case for an agent-based explanation of foreign policy change and continuity.
Inside Campaigns: Elections Through the Eyes of Political Professionals by
"Inside Campaigns: Elections Through the Eyes of Political Professionals is essential reading not only for students interested in running campaigns and for journalism students who want to cover politics, but for campaign operatives generally and journalists who want to raise the level of their game. In fact, it's good reading for everybody." --Thomas B. Edsall, Columbia Graduate School of Journalism "Much of our useful knowledge sits at the intersection of disciplines. Inside Campaigns demonstrates that through a skillful combination of political science with management in a highly readable and practical format. A first for this field!" --Leonard A. Schlesinger, Baker Foundation Professor-Harvard Business School, President Emeritus-Babson College Inside Campaigns, Second Edition takes readers on a journey into the world of campaign managers. Powered by scores of interviews and surveys of political professionals, the book considers the purpose, potency, and poetry of modern political campaigns in the US. The expert author team draw from years of scholarly research and professional campaign experience to guide readers on a behind-the-scenes tour of the ways campaigns are managed, the strategies that are employed, the roles played by both staff and the candidates, and the affects election outcomes have on American democracy. Readers will develop an understanding of what campaigns do and why they matter, as well as gain practical skills for working in a campaign or advocating for a cause. New to the Second Edition: A case study created from an in-depth interview with Bernie Sanders' top digital decision-makers describes how the Sanders' campaign used digital media to harness the energy of their highly motivated base supporters. This case shows students a real-life campaign decision-making situation, and demonstrates how campaigns use new digital media to drive traditional news media coverage. A unique joint interview with the top media buyers from the Clinton and Trump campaigns reveals how each campaign tracked the other's advertising and adjusted their own advertising based on competitive tracking information. This interview illustrates to students how modern campaigns use media tracking technologies to monitor their opposition and spend tens of millions of dollars at the presidential level. A top Trump digital manager shares inside details of how the Republican National Committee moved quickly to help build out the Trump digital operations after it was clear that Trump would be the party's presidential nominee. This insight helps students understand how the Trump campaign answered, "What do we tell them?" by testing messages online, including recycling Trump's personal tweets in instant messages and emails. The differences between how the Clinton and Trump campaigns managed the news media are highlighted in a case study of one journalist's experiences covering both campaigns. This case study helps the student build skills for becoming a "spinmeister" who handles day-to-day relationships with the news media. The authors' research surprisingly reveals that, behind the scenes, Trump was much more available to reporters than Clinton, despite Trump's continuous public attacks on the "fake news media."
Electoral Campaigns, Media, and the New World of Digital Politics by
Today, political leaders and candidates for office must campaign in a multi-media world not only through the traditional media forums - newspapers, radio, and television - but also through new digital media, particularly social media. Electoral Campaigns, Media, and the New World of Digital Politics chronicles how Twitter, Facebook, Reddit, email, and memes are used successfully and unsuccessfully to influence elections. Each of these platforms have different affordances and reach different audiences in different ways and campaigns often have to wage different campaigns on each of these mediums. In some instances, they are crucial in altering coverage in the mainstream media. In others, digital media remains under-utilized and undeveloped. As has always been the case in politics, outcomes that depend on economic and social conditions often dictate people's readiness for certain messages. However, the method and content of those messages has changed with great consequences for the health and future of democracy. This book answers several questions: How do candidates/parties reach audiences that are preoccupied, inattentive, amorphous and bombarded with so many other messages? How do they cope with the speed of media reporting in a continuous news cycle that demands instantaneous responses? How has media fragmentation altered the campaign styles and content of campaign communication, and general campaign discourse? Finally and most critically, what does this mean for how democracies function?
Primary Politics: Everything You Need to Know About How America Nominates Its Presidential Candidates by
The 2020 presidential primaries are on the horizon and this third edition of Elaine Kamarck's Primary Politics will be there to help make sense of them. Updated to include the 2016 election, it will once again be the guide to understanding the modern nominating system that gave the American electorate a choice between Donald Trump and Hilary Clinton. In Primary Politics, political insider Elaine Kamarck explains how the presidential nomination process became the often baffling system we have today, including the "robot rule." Her focus is the largely untold story of how presidential candidates since the early 1970s have sought to alter the rules in their favor and how their failures and successes have led to even more change.
The Promise and Challenge of Party Primary Elections by
While primary elections are most often associated with presidential candidates in the United States, similar methods for selecting party leaders and candidates are becoming increasingly common in parliamentary democracies around the world. The Promise and Challenge of Party Primary Elections introduces the first comprehensive examination of both the concept and the practice of primary elections outside of the United States. By offering a clear definition of primary elections and examples of their types, the authors deliver the tools needed for comparative analysis within and across diverse party systems.